University lessons of English language: 2011

Friday, October 21, 2011

Send Free SMS to International Mobiles Around the World

Send Unlimited Free SMS WorldWide, Send Local and International SMS to anywhere from all over the world without registrations; almost ALL mobile network providers are supported, try yourself at:

Click her

After selecting the server will pop up another window, which have enrolled and enter your phone number, for the number referred to a Moroccan 212678324021 + figure begins first by the country code is +212 You can change this number to any other number just choose the name of your country as in the picture for No. 6 is party number for the Moroccans 06 means cell phone number so we enter the number 6 in the second box and the rest of the figures in the last box

After entering the number, type the name of the sender (should not contain the name of the sender at a distance) as well as I start to write your message to indicate that You can not write more than 150 characters per message. After completing the type code Kabacha Eidahr the site as in the image,

select the Send

It also notes there is a counter Eidahr Descending wait until the end of the countdown will show saluting the other depleted telling you that your message has been sent correctly, and remind you of your message and phone number of the consignee

Tuesday, October 18, 2011

english4you

Thursday, October 13, 2011

What is a deictic expression?

Definition
	A deictic expression is an expression that has a deictic usage as its basic usage, though it may also have nondeictic usages.

What is a participant role?

Definition
	A participant role is a relation that persons have to each other with regards to their involvement in a speech event.

What is a turn?

Definition
	A turn is a time during which a single participant speaks, within a typical, orderly arrangement in which participants speak with minimal overlap and gap between them.

What is a constituent?

Definition
	A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or morphologically into a construction at any level.

Examples (English)
	The sentence You eat bananas contains the following constituents: Immediate constituents you eat bananas Ultimate constituents you eat banana -s

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of constituents:
	What is an immediate constituent? What is an ultimate constituent? What is a construction? What are discontinuous constituents? What is a morpheme? What is a zero?

What is a clitic? (Grammar)

Definition
	A clitic is a morpheme that has syntactic characteristics of a word, but shows evidence of being phonologically bound to another word.

Features

Phonologically bound but syntactically free
Function at phrase or clause level
Cannot be integrated into standard discourse without being bound to some other form
Often have grammatical rather than lexical meaning
Belong to closed classes like pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions
Usually attach to the edges of words, outside of derivational and inflectional affixes
Often attach to several syntactic categories of words such as head noun, non-head noun, preposition, verb, or adverb
Phonologically unstressed

Discussion
	A clitic may have a nonclitic alternant.

Examples (English)
	The contraction of the morpheme is, as in What's going on? The possessive marker 's, as in The man in the black coat's book.

Kinds

Here are the two kinds of clitics:

proclitic, occurring at the beginning of a morpheme
enclitic, occurring at the end of a morpheme

Note:

Clitics that occur on the last element of a clause will always cliticize to the end of that element. (See Payne, T. 1997b)

Generic
	A clitic is a kind of
	What is a word? What is a morpheme type?

Comparison and contrast: clitic versus affix

Here is a table that compares and contrasts clitics and affixes:

Clitic	Affix
Functions above the word level syntactically and on the word level phonologically.	Functions on the word level syntactically and phonologically.
May attach to words belonging to a variety of syntactic categories.	Attaches to words belonging to a single syntactic category.
May attach to words or whole phrases.	Attaches to single words.
Occurs at the edge of a word.	May occur within or at the edges of a word.

What is a phonological derivation?

Definition
	A phonological derivation is the set of stages used to generate the phonetic representation of a word from its underlying representation.

Discussion
	Here is a diagram of the stages in a derivation. Phonological rules influence each stage of a derivation:

Examples (English)
	Here are some examples of the derivations of words having the negative prefix /In/:

Comparison and contrast of wordform, word, morpheme, and syllable

Compare and contrast: Wordform, word, morpheme, and syllable

Here is a table that compares and contrasts a morpheme with other minimal units in language:

A …	Is the smallest unit of …	That …
Wordform	Speech or writing	Has distinctive meaning. Can occur by itself. (In most orthographies it is separated from other wordforms by a space.)
Word	Syntax	Has distinctive meaning. Can occur by itself.
Morpheme	Syntax	Has a distinctive meaning. Cannot occur by itself unless it is in a monomorphemic word.
Syllable	Pronunciation	Has no inherent distinctive meaning. Cannot occur by itself unless it is in a monosyllabic word.

What is a stem?

Definition
	A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added.

Discussion
	A stem consists minimally of a root, but may be analyzable into a root plus derivational morphemes. A stem may require an inflectional operation (often involving a prefix or suffix) in order to ground it into discourse and make it a fully understandable word. If a stem does not occur by itself in a meaningful way in a language, it is referred to as a bound morpheme.

Examples (English)
	The verbs tie and untie are both stems. The inflectional third person singular suffix -s may be added to the stems to form ties and unties.

Generic
	A stem is a kind of
	What is a construction? What is a morpheme type?

What is a root?

Definition
	A root is the portion of a word that
	is common to a set of derived or inflected forms, if any, when all affixes are removed is not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple, and carries the principle portion of meaning of the words in which it functions.

Discussion
	If a root does not occur by itself in a meaningful way in a language, it is referred to as a bound morpheme.

Examples (English)
	Disestablish Establishment Establishments

Generic
	A root is a kind of
	What is a morpheme type?

What is a free morpheme?

Definition

A free morpheme is a grammatical unit that can occur by itself. However, other morphemes such as affixes can be attached to it.

Also known as:

unbound morpheme

Example (English)
	The morpheme dog

Generic
	A free morpheme is a kind of
	What is a morpheme type?

What is a bound morpheme?

Definition
	A bound morpheme is a grammatical unit that never occurs by itself, but is always attached to some other morpheme.

Example (English)
	The plural morpheme -s in dogs

Generic
	A bound morpheme is a kind of
	What is a morpheme type?

What is a derivational affix?

Definition
	A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.

Discussion
	In contrast to an inflectional affix, a derivational affix
	is not part of an obligatory set of affixes generally occurs closer to the root generally is more meaningful, and is more likely to result in a form that has a somewhat idiosyncratic meaning.

Examples (English)
	Joyful Joyfulness Stapler

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of derivational affixes:
	What is a productive affix? What is an unproductive affix?

Generic
	A derivational affix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is a separable affix?

Definition
	A separable affix is an affix that can be detached from its stem and located elsewhere in a construction.

Example (German)
	The affix an- is a separable affix. It is attached to its stem in the verb ankommen ‘to arrive’; but it can be detached from the stem, as in the sentence Ich komme an ‘I arrive’.

Generic
	A separable affix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is a suprafix?

Definition
	A suprafix is a kind of affix in which a suprasegmental is superimposed on one or more syllables of the root or stem, signalling a particular morphosyntactic operation.
	This is a morphological process.

Example (English)
	The placement of stress in the following words signals the difference between a noun and a related verb:
	'produce, n. pro'duce, v.

Examples (Moba-Gur, Togo)

Suprafixes of tone occur on verb roots. The two suprafixes use different tones on different groups of verbs. In the following group of verbs, the high to low tone is the perfective morpheme. The mid to high tone is the imperfective morpheme.

Perfective	Imperfective
†u bod he PERF.get.lost 'he got lost'	Øu bod he IMP.get.lost 'he was getting lost'
†u pid he PERF.dust 'he dusted'	Øu pid he IMP.dust 'he was dusting'
†u jaand he PERF.pray 'he prayed'	Øu jaand he IMP.pray 'he was praying'

Generic
	A suprafix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is a circumfix?

Definition
	A circumfix is an affix made up of two separate parts which surround and attach to a root or stem.
	The morphological process whereby this is achieved is called circumfixation.

Example (Tuwali Ifugao, Philippines)

The circumfix ka--an is a nominalizer and surrounds a root.

baddang: root ‘help’ v.

ka--an: circumfix ‘NOMR’

kabaddangan: word ‘helpfulness’

Generic
	A circumfix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is a suffix?

Definition
	A suffix is an affix that is attached to the end of a root or stem.

Example (English)
	The past tense suffix -ed attaches to the end of the stem walk to form the past tense verb walked.

Generic
	A suffix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

See also
	What is suffixation?

What is a prefix?

Definition
	A prefix is an affix that is joined before a root or stem.

Example (English)
	The prefix un- attaches to the front of the stem selfish to form the word unselfish.

Generic
	A prefix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is an infix?

Definition
	An infix is an affix that is inserted within a root. or stem.

Example: Philippines (Tagalog)
	The focus marker -um- is a infix which is added after the first consonant of the root.
	bili: root ‘buy’ -um-: infix ‘AGT’ bumili: word ‘bought’

Example (Chickasaw)
	In verb roots, a glottal stop is inserted to form a negative.

Example (English)
	bloomin of abso-bloomin-lutely

Generic
	An infix is a kind of
	What is an affix? (Linguistics)

What is inflection?

Definition
	Inflection is variation in the form of a word, typically by means of an affix, that expresses a grammatical contrast which is obligatory for the stem’s word class in some given grammatical context.

Discussion
	In contrast to derivation, inflection
	does not result in a change of word class, and usually produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning.

Characteristics of inflectional operations
	Inflectional operations ground the semantic content of a root according to place, time, and participant reference, without substantially affecting the basic semantic content of the root. They often specify when an event or situation took place, who or what were the participants, and sometimes where, how or whether an event or situation really took place. In other words, roots can be inflected for such things as:
	Agreement: person, number, and gender Sequential, temporal or epistemological grounding: tense, aspect, mode
	Inflectional operations
	are grammatically required in certain syntactic environments Example: The main verb of an English sentence must be inflected for subject and tense. tend to be regular and productive, in comparison to derivational operations, and tend to occur in paradigms .

Example (English)
	In the following English sentence, come is inflected for person and number by the suffix -s: The mailman comes about noon.

Example (Spanish)
	In the following Spanish noun phrase, las and rojas are inflected for agreement with manzanas in grammatical gender by -a and in number by -s:
	las manzanas rojas ‘the red apples’

Generic
	Inflection is a kind of
	What is a morphosyntactic operation?

What is a morphosyntactic operation?

Definition
	A morphosyntactic operation is an ordered, dynamic relation between one linguistic form and another.

Discussion
	A morphosyntactic operation is often manifested (or coded) by a formal operator, such as a prefix, a suffix, a stress shift or a combination of two or more of these. However, some operations are not overtly coded. One method of noting the existence of a morphosyntactic operation that has no overt realization is to posit a zero morpheme.

Contrast: morphosyntactic operations and morphological processes

Morphological processes encode morphosyntactic operations.

Morphosyntactic operations have conceptual content and may be associated with particular functions.

Example:
	Plural formation is a morphosyntactic operation, whereas suffixation is a kind of morphological process that English uses to encode plural formation.

Kinds
	Here are two kinds of morphosyntactic operations:
	What is derivation? What is inflection?

What is a construction?

Definition
	A construction is an ordered arrangement of grammatical units forming a larger unit.

Discussion
	Different usages of the term construction include or exclude stems and words.

Examples (English)
	[subject + verb + object] forms a clause [determiner + noun] forms a noun phrase [adjective + noun + plural marker] forms a compound noun

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of constructions:
	What is an apposition? What is a clause? What is a clause chain? What is direct speech? What is an elliptical construction? What is an endocentric construction? What is an exocentric construction? What is an idiom? What is indirect speech? What is a phrase? What is a sentence? What is a serial verb construction? What is a stem? What is a word?

Generic
	A construction is a kind of
	What is a constituent?

What is a verb? (Linguistics)

Definition
	A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that
	typically signal events and actions constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause govern the number and types of other constituents which may occur in the clause, and in inflectional languages, may be inflected for tense aspect voice modality, or agreement with other constituents in person number, or grammatical gender.

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of verbs:
	What is an auxiliary verb? What is a conjunctive verb? What is a copula? What is a defective verb? What is a finite verb? What is an impersonal verb? What is an irregular verb? What is a lexical verb? What is a nonfinite verb? What is a phrasal verb? What is a reflexive verb?

Generic
	A verb is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is an emphasis marker?

Definition
	An emphasis marker is a word or affix that expresses a speaker's stress upon the predicate of a sentence.

Example (Vietnamese)
	In the following sentence, co is an emphasis marker (diacritical markings have not been included here): on ba co xem quyen truyen ay Mr. Ba EMPHASIS read book story that ‘Mr. Ba did read that novel.’

Generic
	An emphasis marker is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is a dummy word?

Definition
	A dummy word is a grammatical unit that has no meaning, but completes a sentence to make it grammatical.

Examples (English)
	It is raining. Does he know?

Generic
	A dummy word is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is a determiner?

Definition
	A determiner is a word or affix that belongs to a class of noun modifiers that expresses the reference, including quantity, of a noun.

Example (English)
	all these houses

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of determiners:
	What is an article? What is a demonstrative? What is a quantifier?

Generic
	A determiner is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is a conjunction?

Definition
	A conjunction is a word that
	syntactically links words or larger constituents, and expresses a semantic relationship between them.
	A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English conjunctive adverbs.

Examples (English)
	Coordinating conjunctions and or but Subordinating conjunctions because when unless

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of conjunctions:
	What is a coordinating conjunction? What is a subordinating conjunction?

Generic
	A conjunction is a kind of
	What is a word? What is a relator?

What is a classifier?

Definition
	A classifier is a word or affix that expresses the classification of a noun.

Examples (Spanish)
	In Spanish, the affixes -a and -o classify nouns according to feminine or masculine gender, respectively. Here are some examples of nouns they classify: mesa ‘table’ arco ‘arch’

Generic
	A classifier is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is an adverb? (Linguistics)

Definition
	Here are two senses for adverb:
	An adverb, narrowly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words which modify verbs for such categories as time manner place, or direction. An adverb, broadly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words which modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as verbs adjectives adverbs phrases clauses, or sentences. Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the constituent being modified.

Discussion
	The general class adverb is a mixture of very different kinds of words, which cover a wide range of semantic concepts and whose syntactic distribution is disparate. The definition of the lexical category adverb is language-specific, based on syntactic distribution.
	Many words traditionally called adverbs in English, such as degree words (very, awfully) and negatives (not), are set up as distinct word-classes in linguistic studies.

Examples (English)
	He went fast. She slowly shut the door. Nearly in a rage, he left.

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of adverbs:
	What is a conjunctive adverb? What is a sentence adverb?

Generic
	An adverb is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is an adposition?

Definition
	An adposition is a cover term for prepositions and postpositions. It is a member of a closed set of items that
	occur before or after a complement composed of a noun phrase, noun, pronoun, or clause that functions as a noun phrase, and form a single structure with the complement to express its grammatical and semantic relation to another unit within a clause.

Examples (English)
	He went to the races. He promised to help with whatever was the matter.

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of adpositions:
	What is a postposition? What is a preposition?

Generic
	An adposition is a kind of
	What is a word? What is a relator?

What is an adjective?

Definition
	An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent.

Discussion
	Some languages have no formally distinct category of adjectives. In such languages, property concepts are expressed as either nouns or verbs.
	An adjective generally
	occurs in a noun phrase or as a stative predicate may be intensified, and may take comparative and superlative degrees.

Examples (English)
	That cat is big. We will not drive the old car. I am very encouraged! She is more agile than you.

Kinds
	Here are some kinds of adjectives:
	What is an absolute adjective? What is a verbal adjective?

Generic
	An adjective is a kind of
	What is a word?

What is a sentence?

Definition
	A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.

Discussion

The meaning of the term sentence may be expanded to include elliptical material and nonproductive items.

Examples:

After lunch. (in reply to When do you start?)
Yes.
Hello.

Example (English)
	I am reading a book.

What is a verb phrase?

Definition
	Here are two senses for verb phrase:
	In traditional terminology, a verb phrase is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other constituents apart from the subject.

Generic
	A verb phrase is a kind of
	What is a phrase?

What is a pronominal?